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Lakota comedian-musician Terry Ree has been one half the comedy team Williams and Ree since 1968. “I was born in Huron, South Dakota about a hundred miles from the Crow Creek reservation,” says Ree. “My mom and dad were in one of the original [termination period] relocation programs. They took a bunch of Natives from Fort Thompson, put them in the back of a military truck, drove them a hundred miles away, and dumped them in the middle of the street and said, ‘Find a job and live here.’ Within a couple of days all the Natives went right back home. My mom and dad stayed. We became the only Indian family in Huron, South Dakota. I was known as ‘The Indian Kid.’ I wasn’t allowed to join the cub scouts or the boy scouts in Huron. I dealt with a lot of racism but… you just lived with it... and you learned to find humor in these situations.”Ree was the youngest of eight children and he was hit hard by the sudden death of his father when he was still a young boy. Television became his babysitter. “After the death of my father, our family moved to Pier, South Dakota and that’s where I went to high school. I started watching comedians on The Ed Sullivan Show. I would watch The Jackie Gleason Show and I loved it. From there I went to Black Hills State College in Spearfish, which had the highest percentage of Native students of any college, and that’s where I met my partner Bruce Williams.”Bruce Williams and Terry Ree have decades of experience playing motel lounges and country fairs. They moved to Hollywood in the late 1970s and were staples of the Comedy Store from 1977 through 1980. During that period they did most of their major television appearances - Make Me Laugh, Don Kirshner’s Rock Concert, The Jim Nabors Show, Dinah!, and Norm Crosby’s Comedy Shop.They signed with the Jim Halsey Agency in the early 1980s, which represented major country music stars like the Oak Ridge Boys, Loretta Lynn, Merle Haggard, and Willie Nelson. The agency made Williams and Ree an opening act for all of those stars, enjoying lucrative stands in Las Vegas. Their agents also booked them on The Nashville Network constantly, guesting on all the major TNN shows. They even cohosted a cooking program with Florence Henderson.
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Of chemical reactors for nanoparticle precipitation. Aiche J. 2006, 52, 1877–1887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]De Santana, A.O.; Dantas, C.C. Scale up of the mixer of a mixer-settler model used in a uranium solvent extraction process. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 1995, 189, 257–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Geeting, M.W.; Brass, E.A.; Brown, S.J.; Campbell, S.G. Scale-up of Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Removal of Cesium at Savannah River Site. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2008, 43, 2786–2796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]Kurniawansyah, F.; Mammucari, R.; Tandya, A.; Foster, N.R. Scale—Up and economic evaluation of the atomized rapid injection solvent extraction process. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2017, 127, 208–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Carta, G. Scale-Up and Optimization in Preparative Chromatography: Principles and Biopharmaceutical Applications. Chromatographic Science Series, Volume 88 Edited by Anurag, S. Rathore (Pharmacia Corporation, Chesterfield, MO) and Ajoy Velayudhan (Oregon State University). Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, Basel. 2002. xvi + 342 pp. $150.00. ISBN 0-8247-0826-1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 3398–3399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Heuer, C.; Hugo, P.; Mann, G.; Seidel-Morgenstern, A. Scale up in preparative chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 1996, 752, 19–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Rathore, A.S.; Velayudhan, A. Guidelines for optimization and scale up in preventive chromatography. Biopharm Int. 2003, 16, 1. [Google Scholar] Figure 1. The REE general processing plant. Figure 2. Effect of the pressure on the recovery of thorium (Th) and REE at 70 °C, adapted from [31]. (Reproduced with permission from ref. [31], copyright (2002), Elsevier) Figure 3. Leaching-cracking approaches for separation of REE from radioactive elements. Figure 4. Process flowsheet for separation of Th and U from REE by precipitation. Figure 5. Process of separating Th from REE of Baotou bastnäsite leaching. Figure 6. Separation of thorium and uranium from REE by solvent extraction method with TEHP in n-paraffin. Figure 7. Cation exchange extraction with Dionex Ion Pac CS5 column. Figure 8. Flow diagram of uranium removal from REE. Figure 9. Separation factor of actinides/Nd by graphene oxide (GO) and functionalized graphene oxide with PDA (GO-PDA) membranes. (Reproduced with permission from ref. [109], copyright (2012), Elsevier). Table 1. REE-bearing minerals and gangue minerals from deposits. TypeMineralFormulaAverage Composition (wt.%)Ref.REE OxideThO2UO2CarbonateAncyliteSr(Ce,La)(CO3)2OH·H2O460–0.40.1[6]Bastnäsite(Ce,La)CO3F740–0.3[6]ParisiteCa(REE)2(CO3)3F2590–0.50–0.3[6]PhosphateApatiteCa5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)19--[4,6]Britholite(REE,Ca)5(SiO4,PO4)3(F,OH)561.5-[4,6]Monazite(REE,Th)PO435–710–200–16[6,23]XenotimeYPO461-0–5[4,6]OxideBrannerite(U,REE,Ca)(Ti,Fe)2O66--[6]Perovskite(Ca,REE)TiO30–2[6]SilicateAllanite(REE,Ca)2(Al,Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH)300.3-[4,6]Cheralite(REE,Th,Ca)(P,Si)O45-[4,6] Table 2. Uranium and thorium separation from REE by a two-step cracking-leaching process. REE-Bearing MineralReagentOperating ConditionsOverall Recovery in Leach Liquor (%)Ref.Pressure (atm)Time (h)T (°C)ThUREEXenotimeNitric acid1-60->98[35]Concentrated monazite (87 wt.% REE)Ammonium carbonate6.5–101–28099952.5[31]Monazite (18.5 wt.% REE)Ammonium oxalate140100>40[33] Table 3. The pH ranges for precipitation of thorium, uranium and the REE in different liquors. ElementsPrecipitation pH (Approx.)Chloride LiquorSulfate LiquorTh4.8–5.81–2U5.5–76REE6.8–83–5.5 Table 4. Uranium and thorium separation from REE by precipitation technique. Original OreUpstream Liquor FeedPrecipitation ReagentFinal pHPrecipitation Recovery (%)Ref.ThUREEMonaziteSulfate1st step: Oxalic acid0.798-99[39]2nd step: Alkali leaching->99-Synthesized solutionNitrateKOH and NH4OH4.5-90low[51]Monazite, ApatiteChlorideHydrated lime and NH4OH2.5>99-5[48]Monazite, REE carbonateChlorideLime and H2O2-99>80[49]Bastnäsite, MonaziteHydroxide cakeHCl5.8>99>992.3[56]XenotimeSulfate1st step: NH4OH1.5–1.9>99-[46]2nd step: Oxalic acid--->98 Table 5. PerformanceRee Virtual Drive Creator Software - Free Download Ree
Read in app Johnny Depp, Elon Musk, Amber Heard. Getty/Francois G. Durand/Getty Images Amber Heard is currently in court alongside ex Johnny Depp over a $100 million defamation case. Heard has had several high-profile relationships before and after her relationship with Depp. Insider has compiled a list of all of Heard's past public relationships. Amber Heard was in a four-year relationship with Tasya van Ree. Tasya van Ree and Amber Heard. Brian To/FilmMagic Amber Heard, who said in 2010 that she doesn't label her sexuality, was in a relationship with photographer and painter Tasya van Ree for four years from 2008 to 2012.During their relationship, Heard changed her last name to van Ree, Page Six reported. USA Today reported that Heard was arrested in 2009 on a charge of physically assaulting then-girlfriend van Ree at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport in Washington. The two got into a disagreement after Heard allegedly grabbed and hit van Ree's arm.All charges were dropped, however, with van Ree herself saying that Heard was "wrongfully" accused by cops who "misinterpreted and over-sensationalized" the incident.The pair separated in 2012 at which point Heard reinstated her birth name. Amber Heard was married to Johnny Depp for 15 months. Amber Heard and Johnny Depp. Steve Granitz/WireImage Amber Heard first met Johnny Depp on the set of "The Rum Diary" in 2009 before marrying in 2015.The pair's wedding was an intimate affair with only 20 to 25 people in attendance, People magazine reported.As Insider previously reported, Heard filed for divorce from. Follow WebCms. WebCms Web Site. You Might Also Like. Secure User Management, Made Simple WebCMS is Web Application that helps colleges automate their curriculum proposal/approval process. Public Access. This area of WebCMS gives public Web site visitors access to theRee Frog Scream GIF - Ree Frog Scream Pepe The
Of uranium is achieved in the form of β–UO2(OH)2 [52].The type of reagent is another critical parameter that determines which elements, e.g., thorium, uranium, or REE, are precipitated, while the others remain in the aqueous phase. A double sulphate reagent produces the REE precipitate in the form of MRE(SO4)2 with M representing sodium, potassium or ammonium, leaving radioactive elements in the aqueous phase, reaction 9 [53]. Precipitation of the trivalent REE is attributed to the low solubility of the REE sulfate in water, resulting in the separation from the radioactive elements and tetravalent REE, i.e., cerium (IV): 3.2. Multi- or Single-Step PrecipitationThe precipitation for separation of radioactive elements and REE can be conducted in either multi-steps or a single step, regarding the types of the liquor and reagents. A secondary purification step is necessary when the reagent is selective to one of the radioactive elements, while the other one remains with REE. For instance, a 30% concentrated oxalic acid precipitates 99% thorium along with 98% REE at 30 °C, leaving uranium in the solution according to reactions 10 to 13 [35,39,46,54]. Next, a mixed alkali solution of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 selectively leaches and recovers 99% thorium from the oxalate cake, reaction 14, while the REE remains in the solid form as carbonates [39]:Vijayalakshmi et al. [46] also reported a multi-step separation of radioactive elements from REE wherein the thorium is initially precipitated from a sulfate liquor by adding ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Then, REE was separated from uranium in a secondary precipitation step in the form of REE oxalate. They suggested employing an excess amount of oxalic acid to lower the pH of the solution, and adjust it between 1 and 2 to avoid co-precipitation of impurities, e.g., aluminum and iron, with REE [40]. In such a multi-step separation of radioactive elements and REE, control of pH is more comfortable during the process, and the efficiency of the recovery is high. However, a large amount of reagent is required, which is economically infeasible.To overcome the drawbacks of the multi-step precipitation, various studies were conducted to recover either the REE or both thorium and uranium in a single-step process. Kul et al. [41] applied a double-salt single-step approach and reported 98% recovery of REE in the precipitate while only 15% thorium is co-precipitated. The hydroxide reagents have the potential for a single-step recovery of the radioactive elements from a chloride liquor [48,49,55]. For instance, the hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, precipitates thorium at a pH of 2.5, while the loss of REE through co-precipitation is minimized [48]. Yu et al. [49] employed the hydrated lime to extract the thorium and uranium from a chloride liquor which was produced from the processing of monazite andRee Drummond's Heartbreaking Health Journey: What Is Ree Drummond
Overall recovery of REE, thorium, and uranium in leach liquor for the two-step cracking-leaching process. 3. Separation by PrecipitationThe REE can be separated from other elements in a liquor via precipitation method using an appropriate reagent such as oxalic acid, reaction 8 [39,40,41,42], To separate the REE from the radioactive elements through precipitation, the most important parameters, include the type of the liquor feed, REE concentration in the feed, the concentration of the precipitation reagent, and the mass ratio of the reagent to REE. The pH is another parameter that determines the performance of selective precipitation of uranium, thorium, and REE. The ideal case is to find distinct pH values to separate radioactive elements from REE. Uranium and REE precipitate at close pH values with a risk of co-precipitation, whereas a high recovery of thorium is achievable since its precipitation requires a different pH [43,44,45,46]. Table 3 presents the pH ranges required for the precipitation of uranium, thorium, and REE in both chloride and sulfate liquors. In an acid liquor, some of alkali precipitation reagents are preferred owing to higher selectivity towards radioactive elements [46,47,48,49]. For instance, ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) at a pH close to 5 [50], and sodium hydroxide [47] precipitate thorium with a small loss of REE. Whereas, potassium iodate (KIO3) is inefficient in the precipitation of thorium due to the co-precipitation of REE [50]. In addition, ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) precipitates uranium at a pH close to 4.5, which is far enough from the REE precipitation pH of about 6 [51]. 3.1. Types of the Liquor and ReagentTypically, the main liquors produced through the industrial hydrometallurgical processes are chloride and sulfate [4]. In the chloride liquor, precipitation of the radioactive elements is usually achieved by adding an alkali reagent. If the pH is kept close to or below 5.5, the total thorium and a part of uranium are likely precipitated and recovered while the loss of the REE is about 2% [44,45]. A lower pH for precipitation of radioactive elements has been reported in a sulfate liquor compared to the chloride liquor. Table 3 presents the pH range required for precipitating thorium and uranium from chloride and sulfate liquors. For example, 100% thorium is precipitated from sulfate liquor at a pH close to 1 using ammonium hydroxide. However, REE (44.7% La, 63.5% Ce, and 63.2% Nd) are also co-precipitated under such a highly acidic condition [43,46].In some cases, nitrate liquor has also been studied for separation of uranium from REE [51,52] wherein the uranium was precipitated by 90% using hydroxide reagents at a pH of 4.5 [51]. Further, a higher efficiency has also been obtained for a precipitation pH between 6 to 8, at which almost total recoveryRee Drummond Blog - A Glimpse Into Ree's Real Life on the Ranch
Of REE from secondary sources such as electronic wastes [24,25], red mud (Bauxite) [26,27,28,29], and coal [30] has also been recently investigated. The separation of radioactive elements during these processes is out of the scope of the present review article and requires further study. 2. Separation by LeachingLeaching is a process based on the different solubility of elements in a leach liquor. To separate the radioactive elements from REE, leaching process is typically applied on, either fresh or concentrated ore [4], in order to maximize the solubility of radioactive elements [31,32,33,34] or REE [35] in the liquor.According to the literature, a one-step leaching process faces technical issues during separation of thorium and uranium from REE owing to the occurrence of undesired reactions and leaching of un-wanted components [36]. For instance, Lapidus and Doyle [33] applied a one-step leaching process to separate radioactive elements from a monazite concentrate using oxalate reagent for leaching out thorium oxalate in the liquid form while rare earth oxalate remains in the solid form. They observed that either Th(HPO4)2 or Th3(PO4)4 is re-precipitated in the liquor at a pH 31,33,35]. This step eliminates the re-precipitation of thorium phosphate resulting in the formation of hydroxide forms of the REE and thorium, which can be separated in the second leaching step [34,37,38], After the cracking step, acid leaching of the produced hydroxide cake is performed wherein the acidic oxalate reagents are employed to leach the radioactive elements while the REE oxalate is insoluble [34]. If the REE is preferred to be in the liquor solution, other acids such as nitric acid (reaction 3) [35] or hydrochloric acid (reaction 4) [37] can be used instead of oxalate reagents; however, the uranium also tends to leach out with the REE if the pH is not properly controlled, The two-step approach can be improved by employing high-pressure leaching to stabilize products that are unstable at atmospheric conditions. Figure 2 shows an increase in the recovery of thorium by ammonium carbonate (250%), from 13% at atmospheric pressure to 98% at 6.5–10 atm at 70 °C, while no significant change occurs in the recovery of REE [31].In such a high-pressure leaching process, the ammonium carbonate leaches both the thorium, reaction 5, and uranyl hydroxides, reaction 6, while it produces a solidus complex after reaction with REE, reaction 7 [31,32]. Typically, an excess amount of reagent is employed in either atmospheric or high-pressure leaching owing to the consuming part of the reagent in the secondary reactions, Figure 3 illustrates a flowsheet summarizing the cracking-leaching approaches (two-step leaching process) wherein, either REE or radioactive elements can be extracted in the leach liquor, depending on the leaching reagent. Table 2 summarizes the experimental conditions and the. Follow WebCms. WebCms Web Site. You Might Also Like. Secure User Management, Made SimpleComments
Lakota comedian-musician Terry Ree has been one half the comedy team Williams and Ree since 1968. “I was born in Huron, South Dakota about a hundred miles from the Crow Creek reservation,” says Ree. “My mom and dad were in one of the original [termination period] relocation programs. They took a bunch of Natives from Fort Thompson, put them in the back of a military truck, drove them a hundred miles away, and dumped them in the middle of the street and said, ‘Find a job and live here.’ Within a couple of days all the Natives went right back home. My mom and dad stayed. We became the only Indian family in Huron, South Dakota. I was known as ‘The Indian Kid.’ I wasn’t allowed to join the cub scouts or the boy scouts in Huron. I dealt with a lot of racism but… you just lived with it... and you learned to find humor in these situations.”Ree was the youngest of eight children and he was hit hard by the sudden death of his father when he was still a young boy. Television became his babysitter. “After the death of my father, our family moved to Pier, South Dakota and that’s where I went to high school. I started watching comedians on The Ed Sullivan Show. I would watch The Jackie Gleason Show and I loved it. From there I went to Black Hills State College in Spearfish, which had the highest percentage of Native students of any college, and that’s where I met my partner Bruce Williams.”Bruce Williams and Terry Ree have decades of experience playing motel lounges and country fairs. They moved to Hollywood in the late 1970s and were staples of the Comedy Store from 1977 through 1980. During that period they did most of their major television appearances - Make Me Laugh, Don Kirshner’s Rock Concert, The Jim Nabors Show, Dinah!, and Norm Crosby’s Comedy Shop.They signed with the Jim Halsey Agency in the early 1980s, which represented major country music stars like the Oak Ridge Boys, Loretta Lynn, Merle Haggard, and Willie Nelson. The agency made Williams and Ree an opening act for all of those stars, enjoying lucrative stands in Las Vegas. Their agents also booked them on The Nashville Network constantly, guesting on all the major TNN shows. They even cohosted a cooking program with Florence Henderson.
2025-04-21Of chemical reactors for nanoparticle precipitation. Aiche J. 2006, 52, 1877–1887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]De Santana, A.O.; Dantas, C.C. Scale up of the mixer of a mixer-settler model used in a uranium solvent extraction process. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 1995, 189, 257–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Geeting, M.W.; Brass, E.A.; Brown, S.J.; Campbell, S.G. Scale-up of Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Removal of Cesium at Savannah River Site. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2008, 43, 2786–2796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]Kurniawansyah, F.; Mammucari, R.; Tandya, A.; Foster, N.R. Scale—Up and economic evaluation of the atomized rapid injection solvent extraction process. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2017, 127, 208–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Carta, G. Scale-Up and Optimization in Preparative Chromatography: Principles and Biopharmaceutical Applications. Chromatographic Science Series, Volume 88 Edited by Anurag, S. Rathore (Pharmacia Corporation, Chesterfield, MO) and Ajoy Velayudhan (Oregon State University). Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, Basel. 2002. xvi + 342 pp. $150.00. ISBN 0-8247-0826-1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 3398–3399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Heuer, C.; Hugo, P.; Mann, G.; Seidel-Morgenstern, A. Scale up in preparative chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 1996, 752, 19–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]Rathore, A.S.; Velayudhan, A. Guidelines for optimization and scale up in preventive chromatography. Biopharm Int. 2003, 16, 1. [Google Scholar] Figure 1. The REE general processing plant. Figure 2. Effect of the pressure on the recovery of thorium (Th) and REE at 70 °C, adapted from [31]. (Reproduced with permission from ref. [31], copyright (2002), Elsevier) Figure 3. Leaching-cracking approaches for separation of REE from radioactive elements. Figure 4. Process flowsheet for separation of Th and U from REE by precipitation. Figure 5. Process of separating Th from REE of Baotou bastnäsite leaching. Figure 6. Separation of thorium and uranium from REE by solvent extraction method with TEHP in n-paraffin. Figure 7. Cation exchange extraction with Dionex Ion Pac CS5 column. Figure 8. Flow diagram of uranium removal from REE. Figure 9. Separation factor of actinides/Nd by graphene oxide (GO) and functionalized graphene oxide with PDA (GO-PDA) membranes. (Reproduced with permission from ref. [109], copyright (2012), Elsevier). Table 1. REE-bearing minerals and gangue minerals from deposits. TypeMineralFormulaAverage Composition (wt.%)Ref.REE OxideThO2UO2CarbonateAncyliteSr(Ce,La)(CO3)2OH·H2O460–0.40.1[6]Bastnäsite(Ce,La)CO3F740–0.3[6]ParisiteCa(REE)2(CO3)3F2590–0.50–0.3[6]PhosphateApatiteCa5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)19--[4,6]Britholite(REE,Ca)5(SiO4,PO4)3(F,OH)561.5-[4,6]Monazite(REE,Th)PO435–710–200–16[6,23]XenotimeYPO461-0–5[4,6]OxideBrannerite(U,REE,Ca)(Ti,Fe)2O66--[6]Perovskite(Ca,REE)TiO30–2[6]SilicateAllanite(REE,Ca)2(Al,Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH)300.3-[4,6]Cheralite(REE,Th,Ca)(P,Si)O45-[4,6] Table 2. Uranium and thorium separation from REE by a two-step cracking-leaching process. REE-Bearing MineralReagentOperating ConditionsOverall Recovery in Leach Liquor (%)Ref.Pressure (atm)Time (h)T (°C)ThUREEXenotimeNitric acid1-60->98[35]Concentrated monazite (87 wt.% REE)Ammonium carbonate6.5–101–28099952.5[31]Monazite (18.5 wt.% REE)Ammonium oxalate140100>40[33] Table 3. The pH ranges for precipitation of thorium, uranium and the REE in different liquors. ElementsPrecipitation pH (Approx.)Chloride LiquorSulfate LiquorTh4.8–5.81–2U5.5–76REE6.8–83–5.5 Table 4. Uranium and thorium separation from REE by precipitation technique. Original OreUpstream Liquor FeedPrecipitation ReagentFinal pHPrecipitation Recovery (%)Ref.ThUREEMonaziteSulfate1st step: Oxalic acid0.798-99[39]2nd step: Alkali leaching->99-Synthesized solutionNitrateKOH and NH4OH4.5-90low[51]Monazite, ApatiteChlorideHydrated lime and NH4OH2.5>99-5[48]Monazite, REE carbonateChlorideLime and H2O2-99>80[49]Bastnäsite, MonaziteHydroxide cakeHCl5.8>99>992.3[56]XenotimeSulfate1st step: NH4OH1.5–1.9>99-[46]2nd step: Oxalic acid--->98 Table 5. Performance
2025-04-14Of uranium is achieved in the form of β–UO2(OH)2 [52].The type of reagent is another critical parameter that determines which elements, e.g., thorium, uranium, or REE, are precipitated, while the others remain in the aqueous phase. A double sulphate reagent produces the REE precipitate in the form of MRE(SO4)2 with M representing sodium, potassium or ammonium, leaving radioactive elements in the aqueous phase, reaction 9 [53]. Precipitation of the trivalent REE is attributed to the low solubility of the REE sulfate in water, resulting in the separation from the radioactive elements and tetravalent REE, i.e., cerium (IV): 3.2. Multi- or Single-Step PrecipitationThe precipitation for separation of radioactive elements and REE can be conducted in either multi-steps or a single step, regarding the types of the liquor and reagents. A secondary purification step is necessary when the reagent is selective to one of the radioactive elements, while the other one remains with REE. For instance, a 30% concentrated oxalic acid precipitates 99% thorium along with 98% REE at 30 °C, leaving uranium in the solution according to reactions 10 to 13 [35,39,46,54]. Next, a mixed alkali solution of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 selectively leaches and recovers 99% thorium from the oxalate cake, reaction 14, while the REE remains in the solid form as carbonates [39]:Vijayalakshmi et al. [46] also reported a multi-step separation of radioactive elements from REE wherein the thorium is initially precipitated from a sulfate liquor by adding ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Then, REE was separated from uranium in a secondary precipitation step in the form of REE oxalate. They suggested employing an excess amount of oxalic acid to lower the pH of the solution, and adjust it between 1 and 2 to avoid co-precipitation of impurities, e.g., aluminum and iron, with REE [40]. In such a multi-step separation of radioactive elements and REE, control of pH is more comfortable during the process, and the efficiency of the recovery is high. However, a large amount of reagent is required, which is economically infeasible.To overcome the drawbacks of the multi-step precipitation, various studies were conducted to recover either the REE or both thorium and uranium in a single-step process. Kul et al. [41] applied a double-salt single-step approach and reported 98% recovery of REE in the precipitate while only 15% thorium is co-precipitated. The hydroxide reagents have the potential for a single-step recovery of the radioactive elements from a chloride liquor [48,49,55]. For instance, the hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, precipitates thorium at a pH of 2.5, while the loss of REE through co-precipitation is minimized [48]. Yu et al. [49] employed the hydrated lime to extract the thorium and uranium from a chloride liquor which was produced from the processing of monazite and
2025-03-25Overall recovery of REE, thorium, and uranium in leach liquor for the two-step cracking-leaching process. 3. Separation by PrecipitationThe REE can be separated from other elements in a liquor via precipitation method using an appropriate reagent such as oxalic acid, reaction 8 [39,40,41,42], To separate the REE from the radioactive elements through precipitation, the most important parameters, include the type of the liquor feed, REE concentration in the feed, the concentration of the precipitation reagent, and the mass ratio of the reagent to REE. The pH is another parameter that determines the performance of selective precipitation of uranium, thorium, and REE. The ideal case is to find distinct pH values to separate radioactive elements from REE. Uranium and REE precipitate at close pH values with a risk of co-precipitation, whereas a high recovery of thorium is achievable since its precipitation requires a different pH [43,44,45,46]. Table 3 presents the pH ranges required for the precipitation of uranium, thorium, and REE in both chloride and sulfate liquors. In an acid liquor, some of alkali precipitation reagents are preferred owing to higher selectivity towards radioactive elements [46,47,48,49]. For instance, ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) at a pH close to 5 [50], and sodium hydroxide [47] precipitate thorium with a small loss of REE. Whereas, potassium iodate (KIO3) is inefficient in the precipitation of thorium due to the co-precipitation of REE [50]. In addition, ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) precipitates uranium at a pH close to 4.5, which is far enough from the REE precipitation pH of about 6 [51]. 3.1. Types of the Liquor and ReagentTypically, the main liquors produced through the industrial hydrometallurgical processes are chloride and sulfate [4]. In the chloride liquor, precipitation of the radioactive elements is usually achieved by adding an alkali reagent. If the pH is kept close to or below 5.5, the total thorium and a part of uranium are likely precipitated and recovered while the loss of the REE is about 2% [44,45]. A lower pH for precipitation of radioactive elements has been reported in a sulfate liquor compared to the chloride liquor. Table 3 presents the pH range required for precipitating thorium and uranium from chloride and sulfate liquors. For example, 100% thorium is precipitated from sulfate liquor at a pH close to 1 using ammonium hydroxide. However, REE (44.7% La, 63.5% Ce, and 63.2% Nd) are also co-precipitated under such a highly acidic condition [43,46].In some cases, nitrate liquor has also been studied for separation of uranium from REE [51,52] wherein the uranium was precipitated by 90% using hydroxide reagents at a pH of 4.5 [51]. Further, a higher efficiency has also been obtained for a precipitation pH between 6 to 8, at which almost total recovery
2025-04-12Exceptions, i.e., cerium can be formed as, either trivalent or tetravalent during hydrometallurgical process where the tetravalent cerium can be separated from the trivalent REE [10,11]. Figure 1 shows a typical REE production process, including geology, mining, physical beneficiation, hydrometallurgy, and separation of individual elements [6].Since mining and refining of low-grade REE-bearing minerals are technically infeasible owing to a lithophilic nature of the REE [12,13], high-grade REE-bearing minerals, such as bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime, are used for economic extraction of these elements [4,12,14,15,16]. Table 1 summarizes both the low-grade and high-grade REE-bearing minerals.Among various gangues, radioactive elements are a serious challenge in the REE production process, regarding specific regulations for safety management in the processing units (for more details refer to [17,18,19]). Thorium (Th) and uranium (U) are naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), which can be found in the REE deposits (Table 1). Monazite and xenotime are the most known REE-bearing minerals that contain radioactive elements. For instance, the REE-bearing ore at Mountain Pass, i.e., a major bastnäsite resource in California with rare earth oxides (REO) of 8.5 wt.%, contains thorium (Th) and uranium (U) of 0.02, and 0.002 wt.%, respectively [19]. In addition, the Bayan Obo bastnäsite and monazite deposit in China contains minerals such as fluorite, magnetite, barite, calcite and quartz with magnetic susceptibility, specific gravity, electrical conductivity, or floatability similar to REE-bearing minerals [20,21].The low concentration of radioactive elements in the upstream rare earth ore processing units, e.g., in physical beneficiation, results in quite low emission of radioactivity, whereas the higher concentration of the radioactive elements in downstream separation lines requires safety measurements to be carefully considered. For example, an exposure of a worker to an ore containing 500 ppm thorium and 50 ppm uranium, staying 1 m away from a large mass of the ore for an entire working year, leads to a total exposure of 2.4 mSv that is below the dose limit for a NORM worker, 20 mSv [17]. This exposure is mainly caused by ore dust inhalation (at 1 mg/m3) and incidentally ore ingestion (at 100 mg/day). Therefore, a step for separation of thorium and uranium is required to minimize risks associated with REE production in terms of safety, environmental hazards, and quality of the final product [22].In the present paper, various hydrometallurgical techniques applied during REE production process for separating thorium (Th) and uranium (U) are reviewed, including leaching, precipitation, solvent extraction, ion chromatography, and membrane to understand the advantages and limitations of each technique. In addition, the process selection with regards to the feed properties, waste management of the separated radioactive elements, and how they can be treated to produce valuable co-products are also discussed.It is worthy of mentioning that recovery
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